You can use the following terms to search HOLLIS for primary sources:. Deciding whether a source is primary or secondary is sometimes confusing. He attempted to mitigate this by passing laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces, and although these laws remained in effect well into the imperial period, they did not prevent determined generals, such as Pompey and Julius Caesar, from using their armies for personal ambition against the Senate, a danger of which Sulla was intimately aware. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. In the sciences and social sciences, primary sources or 'primary research' are original research experiments, studies, or . Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. [88] Political violence in Rome continued even in Sulla's absence. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. The later battle, at Orchomenus, was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. [43] Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games, was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99BC. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. [44], His term as praetor was largely uneventful, excepting a public dispute with Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo (possibly his brother-in-law) and his magnificent holding of the ludi Apollinares. Primary sources are often in manuscript collections and archival records. [37], Starting in 104BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established a tyranny over the city. Primary sources are original . With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82BC were now dead. Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. [106] Roman forces then surrounded the Pontic camp. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. The interest rates were also to be agreed between both parties at the time that the loan was made, and should stand for the whole term of the debt, without further increase. Almost breaking before Marius' makeshift forces, Sulla then stationed troops all over the city before summoning the Senate and inducing it to outlaw Marius, Marius' son, Sulpicius, and nine others. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. What Is a Primary Source? 133/18 Scipio praises C.Marius. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. [69], Sulla started his consulship by passing two laws. However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. [146] An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. 101 BC: Took part in the defeat of the Cimbri at the, 90-89 BC: Senior officer in the Social War, as, Holds the consulship for the first time, with, 87 BC: Commands Roman armies to fight King, 85 BC: Liberates the provinces of Macedonia, Asia, and Cilicia from Pontic occupation, 83 BC: Returns to Italy and undertakes civil war against the factional Marian government, 83-82 BC: Enters war with the followers of Gaius Marius the Younger and Cinna, 82 BC: Obtains victory at the battle of the Colline Gate, 80 BC: Holds the consulship for the second time. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla, who opposed the Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as atavistic when dealing with the tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships, and membership of the Senate. By. Roman military leaders. Essentially, they're sources about primary sources. He was both eloquent and clever, and he made friends easily. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). Sarah Cooper teaches 8th grade U.S. history and is assistant head for academic life at Flintridge Preparatory School in La Canada, Calif. Sarah is the . [79], Sulla then had Sulpicius' legislation invalidated on the grounds that they had been passed by force. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. [59] Sulla attempted also to assist Lucius' relief of the city of Aesernia, which was under siege, but both men were unsuccessful. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. [64], Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. From Book 81 [81.1] [87 BCE] Lucius Sulla besieged Athens, which had been occupied by Archelaus, an officer of Mithridates; [81.2] [86] after much labor he took the city .. note he gave it back the freedom it used to have. [92] In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. Updated on June 22, 2022 Students. 134/4 C.Marius spends his early life in the countryside near Arpinum. [81.3] Magnesia, the only city in Asia that remained loyal, was defended against Mithridates with the greatest courage. His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator,[151] as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. An inscription on a sixteenth-century tombstone in Istanbul would be a primary source from the Classical Ottoman Age. Updated on October 07, 2019. He became a tribune of the plebeians in 52 BC where he gained a reputation for being a strong supporter of the populares. "[156], He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. The faculty and students of the Hanover College History Department initiated the Hanover Historical Texts Project in 1995, at a time when few primary sources were available outside of published anthologies. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. Studying the past supports good citizenship, which is requisite for a fair and effective democracy. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (/ s l /; 138-78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman.He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force.. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship.A gifted and innovative general, he achieved . With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are made . Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents.". For instance, Da Vinci's Mona Lisa is a primary source because it is the most famous art piece during the Renaissance period. With military and diplomatic victory, his political fortunes seemed positive. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. [99], Discovering a weak point in the walls and popular discontent with the Athenian tyrant Aristion, Sulla stormed and captured Athens (except the Acropolis) on 1 March 86BC. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. The first of the, Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBadian2012 (. In the decades before Sulla had become dictator, Roman politics became increasingly violent. [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. Marius, an Italian by birth rather than a pure Roman, was a relative newcomer to the Roman elite, and he was considered an outsider by the Senate fathers. He might have been disinherited, though it was "more likely" that his father simply had nothing to bequeath. [2023] Welcome to The Internet History Sourcebooks Project, a collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on the city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship. Examples include journal articles, reviews . The two armies then crossed the Po and attacked the Cimbri. Weekly Newspaper Articles as Primary Sources. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. [125], Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. His rival, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion but that it was his cunning that was by far the most dangerous. They are different from secondary sources, accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place." Library of Congress Teacher's Page. Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus was possible as long as Mithridates survived. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. Tweet. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . Primary Sources (1) Speech by Gaius Marius in the Senate, quoted by Sallust in his book The Jugurthine War (c. 40 BC) . The Steamboat Adventure. Life dates 138 BC-78 BC. Negotiations broke down after one of Scipio's lieutenants seized a town held by Sulla in violation of a ceasefire. Skilfully withdrawing to Clusium, he delegated to Norbanus command of troops to hold Metellus Pius. He was then assigned by lot to serve under the consul Gaius Marius. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born in 138 BCE in Puteoli, Italy. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. [136] Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. Websites. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Partian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals with Rome as superior. To make primary texts readily available for classroom use, they selected important . This, of course, made him very popular with the poorer citizens. Sulla's First Civil War (88-87 BC) was triggered by an attempt to strip him of the command against Mithridates and saw Sulla become the first Roman to lead an army against the city for four hundred years. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. . [90] By the end of 87BC, Cinna and Marius had besieged Rome and taken the city, killed consul Gnaeus Octavius, massacred their political enemies, and declared Sulla an outlaw; they then had themselves elected consuls for 86BC. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. [30] Sulla was popular with the men, charming and benign, he built up a healthy rapport while also winning popularity with other officers, including Marius. This led him to a secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, in which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. Primary sources can include: Texts of laws and other original documents. Encyclopaedia Romana - Has essays on several aspects of ancient Rome. Primary sources are documents, images, relics, or other works that provide firsthand details of a historical or scientific event. When it came to hiding his intentions, his mind was incredibly unfathomable, yet with all else he was extremely generous; especially with money. Sulla was closely associated with Venus,[9] adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favored of Aphrodite/Venus.[10]. Beginning Research Activities Student activities designed to help . Sulla (P. Cornelius Sulla) - Roman praetor, 212 B.C. The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, when the U.S. Congress agreed to a declaration of war. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. Contact: Research Help Desk, University Library Colorado State University-Pueblo 2200 Bonforte Blvd. to A.D. 68 (1959; 2d ed. Resigning his dictatorship in 79 BC, Sulla retired to private life and died the following year. Ideally, each ensemble is diverse, both in cultural background and practical experience. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. Primary Sources on the Web: Finding, Evaluating, Using. Sulla's military coup was enabled by Marius's military reforms, that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the Roman Republic, and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. Revised on November 11, 2022. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla - Primary Source Edition Paperback - September 30, 2013 by Augustus Henry Beesly (Author) 3.4 out of 5 stars 4 ratings [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. Encyclopedias. Historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying, "In this Caesar, there are many Mariuses. [11], Sulla, the son of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the grandson of Publius Cornelius Sulla,[12] was born into a branch of the patrician gens Cornelia, but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at the time of his birth. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. Sulla had his enemies declared hostes, probably from outside the pomerium, and after assembling an assembly where he apologised for the ongoing war, left to fight Carbo in Etruria. Pueblo, CO 81001. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. The Roman Republic and territories in 100 B.C. The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. From 133BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. "[148][149] Sulla's example proved that it could be done, therefore inspiring others to attempt it; in this respect, he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall. Jugurtha had fled to his father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom); Marius invaded Mauretania, and after a pitched battle in which both Sulla and Marius played important roles in securing victory, Bocchus felt forced by Roman arms to betray Jugurtha. Upon his arrival, Sulla had his quaestor Lucullus order Sura, who had vitally delayed Mithridates' advances into Greece, to retreat back into Macedonia. Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments. [73] The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. Hind 1992, p.150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". 213/23 P.Cornelius Sulla is chosen to be Flamen Dialis. Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared a Roman ally. [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. You may copy and distribute the translations and commentaries in this resource, or parts of such translations and commentaries, in any medium . It is intended to serve the needs of teachers and students in college survey courses in modern European history and American history, as well as in modern Western Civilization and World Cultures. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. A list of useful online sources for reading about Rome at the time of Sulla Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius - Includes maps of the Roman world, texts of several primary sources, and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or . Lucius Cornelius Sulla (l. 138 - 78 BCE) enacted his constitutional reforms (81 BCE) as dictator to strengthen the Roman Senate's power. If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. Sulla then settled affairs "reparations, rewards, administrative and financial arrangements for the future" in Asia, staying there until 84BC. The Mithridatic War (88 - 85 BC) Faced with mobilizing a sufficient fighting force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. Killing Cluentius before the city's walls, Sulla then invested the town and for his efforts was awarded a grass crown, the highest Roman military honour. His third wife was Cloelia, whom Sulla divorced due to sterility. He can hardly have been in any doubt. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I? Also useful for understanding Sulla's career are the article by E. Baddian . [122] Marius, buttressed by Samnite support, fought a long and hard battle with Sulla at Sacriportus that resulted in defeat when five of his cohorts defected. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. Of the twelve outlaws, only Sulpicius was killed after being betrayed by a slave. Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. La riunione periodica sulla sicurezza e la salute dei lavoratori deve essere convocata dal datore di lavoro e devono partecipare almeno il rappresentante dei lavoratori per la sicurezza (RLS) e il medico competente. They had, however, fallen on hard times. Sulla then duly besieged the city. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. . "[158], His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. [59], In the first year of fighting, Roman strategy was largely one of containment, attempting to stop the revolting allies from spreading their rebellion into Roman-controlled territory. [31] Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . Learning in Black and White. Published by at 29, 2022. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life, because of the young man's notorious ambition. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command.
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